2.3 What Dyslexia Looks Like at Various Ages and Grades

“Although it is helpful to agree upon a definition … it is more important to remember that no two … [individuals with dyslexia] are exactly alike, and that the manifestations of dyslexia change over time.”

– Louisa Cook Moats and Karen E. Dakin (2008)

It is important to acknowledge that numerous factors — such as severity, age of initial diagnosis and treatment, responsiveness of the reading/writing problem to treatment or remediation, coexisting conditions that may occur with dyslexia, and an individual’s strengths and areas of specific talent and interest, can cause dyslexia to vary considerably from one individual to another. (See Chapter 7 for more information about comorbidity and conditions that commonly coexist with dyslexia.) In addition, the observable features of dyslexia change over time, as a result of changing academic demands at the different stages of the student’s education, the student’s acquisition of language and literacy skills over time, his or her capacity for using compensatory strategies, and the personal strengths of the student. The following chart highlights “the possible strengths and the possible challenges typical of students with dyslexia” (Fairfax County Public Schools, 2019) during the life cycle of dyslexia.

Life Cycle of Dyslexia

We are grateful to Fairfax County Public Schools (FCPS), Fairfax, Virginia for permission to use the following copyrighted information from the FCPS online Dyslexia Handbook, Signs of Dyslexia, which was adapted from Overcoming Dyslexia (2003), by Sally Shaywitz, M.D.

PreK to Grade 1

Possible Strengths

Curiosity
A great imagination
Creative
Eager to embrace new ideas
Maturity beyond their years

Possible Weaknesses

General

Has a family history of reading/spelling difficulties
Confuses left and right; delay in hand dominance
Has trouble reciting the alphabet, numbers, days of the week or other sequences
Has trouble learning common nursery rhymes such as “Jack and Jill”
Has difficulty recognizing rhyming patterns (cat, bat, rat)

Speaking

Was/is late learning to talk
Mispronounces words by mixing up sounds (e.g., mawn lower)
Has trouble naming letters, matching letters to sounds, or blending sounds
Confuses names or pronunciations of letters with similar sounds (e.g., p/b; z/s; v/f; d/t)

Grades 1 to 3

Possible Strengths

The ability to solve practical problems
Strong listening comprehension
Easily understands new concepts
Large oral vocabulary for his/her age
Enjoyment in solving puzzles
Talent at building models

Possible Weaknesses

General

Lacks fast, effortless recognition of numbers and simple math facts

Speaking

Mispronounces words by mixing up sounds (cinnamon for synonym)
Has difficulty breaking spoken words apart into sounds or syllables

Reading/Spelling

Has difficulty sounding out simple words (cat, map, nap)
Complains about how hard reading or spelling is, or avoids reading
Has trouble reading/spelling sounds in sequence (left for felt)
Reading is inaccurate, slow, and/or is not automatic
Spells words incorrectly, even common high frequency (was, were, then)
Relies on pictures or memorization when reading
Confuses similar-looking letters and words (b/d, p/q, was/saw)

Grades 3 to 6

Possible Strengths

Large vocabulary for his/her age Strong comprehension of stories read/told to him
Strong thinking skills: conceptualization, reasoning, imagination, abstraction
Ability to get the “big picture”

Possible Weakness

General

Has trouble recalling dates, names, telephone numbers, random lists, math facts
Has low self-esteem or anxiety

Speaking

Confuses words that sound alike (e.g., tornado for volcano; lotion for ocean)
Uses imprecise language (e.g., stuff, things)
Oral language abilities much higher than writing skills

Reading/Spelling

Reading is slow, inaccurate or halting/choppy
Has trouble reading unfamiliar words; difficulty sounding out multisyllabic words
Lacks strategies for sounding out new words
Avoids reading aloud
Has poor spelling and/or handwriting
Spells words the way they sound, rather than the way they look
Avoids reading and writing tasks; strongly prefers word processing

Grades 6 to 9

Possible Strengths

A high level of understanding of what is read aloud
A sophisticated spoken vocabulary
Strong in areas not dependent on reading, such as math, computers and visual arts
Strong in conceptual subjects, such as philosophy, science, social studies and creative writing
Exceptional empathy and warmth, emotional intelligence

Possible Weaknesses

General

Has trouble finishing tests on time
Has difficulty learning a foreign language or reading music
Has low self-esteem or anxiety
Has to study more than peers

Speaking

Pauses or hesitates when speaking, using “um” and “like” repeatedly
Mispronounces words that are multisyllabic, unfamiliar, or complicated
Uses imprecise language (e.g., stuff, things)
Seems to need extra time to respond to questions
Oral language abilities much higher than writing skills

Reading/Spelling

Reading and writing are slower than those of peers
Needs to reread for meaning
May answer higher-level questions about text but miss easier, literal questions
Avoids writing; compositions are brief and simplistic
Poor spelling and/or handwriting
Suffers fatigue when reading; avoids reading

Grades 9 - 12 & Beyond

Possible Strengths

Excellence in writing if content is the focus and spelling is not important
Exceptional empathy and warmth, emotional intelligence
Success in areas not dependent on rote memory
Talent for high-level conceptualization and original insights
Big-picture thinking
Inclination to think outside of the box
Noticeable resilience and ability to adapt

Possible Weaknesses

General

Has low self-esteem or anxiety
Knowledge not reflected in standardized-test scores
Has to study more than peers

Speaking

Not fluent, often anxious while speaking
Pauses or hesitates when speaking, using “um” and “like” repeatedly
Uses imprecise language, (e.g., stuff, things)
Struggles to retrieve words (i.e., “tip of my tongue” moments)
Often pronounces names incorrectly; trips over parts of words; avoids saying words that might be mispronounced
Has difficulty remembering names of people and places; confuses names that sound alike
Struggles when put on the spot in conversations or writing
Has spoken vocabulary that is smaller than listening vocabulary

Reading/Spelling

Reading requires great effort and is at a slow pace
Rarely reads for pleasure
Avoids reading aloud
Avoids writing; handwritten compositions are brief and simplistic
Word-processed compositions can be disorganized and lack cohesion
Has poor spelling and/or handwriting
Has difficulty determining the correct spelling of words, even when using a spell checker while word processing

More Information

Computer-Based Information

The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) also has a series of free downloadable Fact Sheets that cover such topics as “Dyslexia Basics” and “Helpful Terminology.” The organization also maintains a list of Frequently Asked Questions which can be located on the IDA website.

The National Center on Improving Literacy (NCIL) offers a broad range of resources for school leaders, teachers, parents and families. It offers the series Improving Literacy Briefs with companion infographics.

The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity’s Signs of Dyslexia, the Fairfax County Public Schools’ Dyslexia Handbook and the University of Michigan’s Clues to Dyslexia provide additional information about the signs and strength of individuals with dyslexia.

View Video

View “What Is Dyslexia?” a helpful video tutorial by Kelli Sandman-Hurley.

Video recordings of Dr. Jack Fletcher’s presentation at the 2017 Colorado Dyslexia Forum and Dr. Margie Gillis’ presentation at the 2018 Colorado Dyslexia Forum are available on the CDE dyslexia website.

Reading Rockets and the National Center for Improving Literacy have produced an extended video interview in 13 brief segments with Dr. Nadine Gaab, a research associate at Boston Children’s Hospital and an associate professor at Harvard Medical School, who discusses a range of topics, including early screening for reading risk and the paradox of dyslexia. The video “What is the dyslexia paradox?” is available on the Reading Rockets website.

View the video “Embracing Dyslexia,” a thoughtful and moving exploration of dyslexia from an insider’s perspective. The video in English and in Spanish. weaves together interviews with parents, adults with dyslexia, researchers, educators and experts.

View the movie The Big Picture: Rethinking Dyslexia. The movie provides personal and inspiring accounts of the dyslexia experience from children, experts and iconic leaders, including Sir Richard Branson and financier Charles R. Schwab.

a yellow circle with a stack of three blue books Books and Print Information

Basic Facts about Dyslexia & Other Reading Problems, by Louisa Cook Moats and Karen E. Dakin, is available from the International Dyslexia Association (IDA).

Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print (1990), by Marilyn Jager Adams, is a comprehensive look at the history of reading instruction and the research that led to our understanding of the role that phonological awareness plays in reading.

Overcoming Dyslexia (2003), by Sally Shaywitz, M.D., is a comprehensive book that covers many aspects of dyslexia, including what dyslexia is; how dyslexia is diagnosed; and what parents, schools and students should know about dyslexia. An updated version was published in 2016.